What Is Sociocultural Theory

What Is Sociocultural Theory Theories Developmental Psychology Print Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Reviewed by Reviewed by Amy Morin, LCSW on July 01, 2019 facebook twitter instagram Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist, author of the bestselling book 13 Things Mentally Strong People Dont Do, and a highly sought-after speaker. Learn about our Wellness Board Amy Morin, LCSW Updated on November 26, 2019 More in Theories Developmental Psychology Behavioral Psychology Cognitive Psychology Personality Psychology Social Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology Sociocultural theory is an emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions that society makes to individual development. This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live. Sociocultural theory also suggests that human learning is largely a social process. Illustration by Brianna Gilmartin, Verywell An Introduction to Sociocultural Theory Sociocultural theory grew from the work of seminal psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher-order functions. According to Vygotsky, learning has its basis in interacting with other people. Once this has occurred, the information is then integrated on the individual level: Vygotsky was a contemporary of other great thinkers such as Freud, Skinner, and Piaget, but his early death at age 37 and the suppression of his work in Stalinist Russia left him in relative obscurity until fairly recently. As his work became more widely published, his ideas have grown increasingly influential in areas including child development, cognitive psychology, and education. Sociocultural theory focuses not only how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact how instruction and learning take place. According to Vygotsky, children are born with basic biological constraints on their minds. Each culture, however, provides what he referred to as tools of intellectual adaptation. These tools allow children to use their basic mental abilities in a way that is adaptive to the culture in which they live. For example, while one culture might emphasize memory strategies such as note-taking, other cultures might utilize tools like reminders or rote memorization. Piaget vs. Vygotsky: Key Differences So how does Vygotskys sociocultural theory differ from Piagets theory of cognitive development? First, Vygotsky placed a greater emphasis on how social factors influence development. While Piagets theory stressed how a childs interactions and explorations influenced development, Vygotsky stressed the essential role that social interactions play in cognitive development.??? Another important difference between the two theories was that while Piagets theory suggests that development is largely universal, Vygotsky suggested that cognitive development can differ between different cultures. The course of development in Western culture, for example, might be different than it is in Eastern culture. Piagets Four Stages of Cognitive Development The Zone of Proximal Development An important concept in sociocultural theory is known as the zone of proximal development.??? According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development is the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or perform on their own yet  but is capable of learning with guidance. As children are allowed to stretch their skills and knowledge, often by observing someone who is slightly more advanced than they are, they are able to progressively extend this zone of proximal development. Exploring the Zone of Proximal Development Observations About Social Learning Theory In his text,  Social and Personality Development, author David R. Shaffer explains that while Piaget believed that cognitive development was fairly universal, Vygotsky believed that each culture presents unique differences. Because cultures can vary so dramatically, Vygotskys sociocultural theory suggests that both the course and content of intellectual development are not as universal as Piaget believed. Practical Applications for Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory Sociocultural theory has gained popularity in recent years, particularly in educational settings. Some examples of how this theory can be put into practice in the real world: In the Classroom Understanding the levels of the zone of proximal development can be helpful for teachers.??? In classroom settings, teachers may first assess students to determine their current skill level. Once this has been ascertained, educators can then offer instruction that stretches the limits of each childs capabilities. At first, the student may need assistance from an adult or more knowledgeable peer, but eventually, their zone of proximal development will expand.   Teachers can plan their instruction and lessons. For example, the teacher might organize the class into groups where less skilled children are paired with students who have a higher skill level.  Hints, prompts, and direct instruction can be used to help kids improve their ability levels.Educators might also utilize the concept of scaffolding, where the teacher provides prompts to move the child progressively forward toward a goal. Socializing and Play Vygotskys theory also stressed the importance of play in learning.??? Teachers and parents can utilize this knowledge by providing children plenty of opportunities for play experiences. Vygotsky believed that through playing and imagining, children were able to further stretch their conceptual abilities and knowledge of the world.   Types of play that can further learn include imaginary play, role-playing, games, and reenactments of real events. Such activities help foster the growth of abstract thought.

Essay on The Harem †A Rare a Privilege of the Rich

The Harem – A Rare a Privilege of the Rich Harems conjure up images of belly dancers moving through smoke in exotic settings. Religious justification of subjugating women to be servants and sexual slaves is a common misnomer as are the images of belly dancers. Descriptions of harems by writers and society may be misleading for they hold the forbidden fruit, women cut off from society existing for man’s sexual pleasure. In actuality, harems were a privilege of those who could afford them and while not outlawed by religion, not required either. The common conception of a harem that is true is the seclusion of women. The Sultan’s harem in Ottoman society during the latter part of the eighteenth century shows how†¦show more content†¦The duties of these two offices were split with the Lady Intendant overseeing discipline and the Treasurer overseeing the economics of the Harem. The last two categories were Pupils and servants. Pupils were slave-girls in training for the higher positions, which they cou ld only rise to if a position became vacant. Servants on the other hand were not trained to rise to any station.5[5] This extensive harem with its own governing was possible due to high economic position. A harem was not a religious invention as it only occurred if there was enough money to support it. Harems did not exist in Muslim countries until it was financially feasible, which occurred around the time of ‘Umar, the Second Caliph, when economic conditions in Arabia changed as Arab conquests expanded. Conquests of Syria, Iraq and other parts of Western Asia brought with them land and wealth. A wealthy class emerged out of these conquests with new societal impacts. Siddiqi describes the development the wealthy class brought: The appearance of feudalism, the effect of social contacts with the people of the conquered countries and the coming into being of a leisured class devoted to the pursuit of physical pleasures contributed to lower the general standard of sex morality among the Muslims. The kings and monarchs in the Muslim countries and along with them the courtiers and aristocrats developed the institution ofShow MoreRelated Dreams of Trespass: Defining the Frontier Essay3719 Words   |  15 PagesDreams of Trespass: Defining the Frontier In Fatima Mernissi’s widely acclaimed book Dreams of Trespass, the storyline weaves around the tale of a young girls’ life in a traditional Moroccan harem that is as much enchanting as it is disparaging. As we follow the young girl from day to day and experience all the little trivialities of her life, we notice that she is quite a precocious little child. She is constantly questioning, in fact, her mother and aunts constantly tell her that she shouldRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 PagesNever pick up a recently killed rattlesnake. Its nerve reflexes enable it to bite for some time after death. c. In a country with a billion people, even if youre a one-in-a-million type guy, there are still a thousand just like you. d. Though rare on Earth, plasmas are the most common form of matter in the universe, even more common than gases. ────16 Discount Indicators It is very common for passages containing arguments also to contain claims that are neither premises nor conclusionsRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesand precious minerals in the highlands of the hemisphere, and of African slaves and cash crops in its tropical islands and coastal lowlands. Peru and Mexico were the jewels of the Spanish imperial crown. Saint-Domingue and Barbados were two of the rich- WORLD MIGRATION IN THE LONG TWENTIETH CENTURY †¢ 27 est spots on the planet, worth much more to their French and British colonial masters than the vast expanses of Louisiana, Anglo North America, and Quebec. But as the industrial revolution

Othello, By William Shakespeare - 939 Words

In Shakespeare’s Othello, the titular character, an honorable Venetian general, is driven to madness through the deceptions of his honest right hand Iago. Iago plots to ruin Othello and through his deception, he fuels Othello’s insecurities through implanting the idea of infidelity of his beloved wife Desdemona. Othello goes on to murder his wife, and after he discovers Iago’s plot, he kills himself. In a time when women were looked down upon, Shakespeare crafted a drama in which women took part in major roles. Modeled by Elizabethan England the women in Othello were portrayed in a light justified by society as in Othello, these women were nothing more to than objectified possessions, forced to submit to the ever dying will of their husbands. This is displayed by Desdemona and Emilia’s and relationships with their husbands. The nature in which women are objectified is made apparent through their relationships with their significant others and in the way men speak of their women. Firstly, after the unblessed eloping of Othello and Desdemona, we see through Iago speech, the objectification of Desdemona. Iago yells â€Å"Brabantio! Thieves, thieves! Look to your house, your daughter, and your bags! Thieves, thieves† (I.I.81)! One can infer from Iago’s speech that the men in the Othello, believe that women, in this case Desdemona, are nothing more than a property of their farthers. As the marriage is not blessed by Brabantio, Othello is stealing his property as Iago compares theShow MoreRelatedOthello, By William Shakespeare957 Words   |  4 Pagesinnocent person kills himself while not knowing the truth. The best example of that would be the play Othello by the great William Shakespeare. As little as a handkerchief could make a difference if it is a symbol for something. In the play Othello by Shakespeare, handkerchief is first introduced by Othello to his beautiful mistress, Desdemona, as a sign of their love. At the end of the play what gets Othello to take extreme measures by the location of the handkerchief. As the symbol of the handkerchiefRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1599 Words   |  7 Pages William Shakespeare’s 16th century play Othello is a duplicitous and fraudulent tale set alternatingly between Venice in act 1, and the island of Cyprus thereafter. The play follows the scandalous marriage between protagonist Othello, a Christian moore and the general of the army of Venice, and Desdemona, a respected and intelligent woman who also happens to be the daughter of the Venetian Senator Brabantio. Shakespeare undoubtedly positions the marriage to be viewed as heroic and noble, despiteRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1218 Words   |  5 PagesIn a historical time period where emphasis was shifting from religion to race and ethnicity, key indicators of differences that perpetuated into racial prejudice and racial ideologies are evident in Othello by William Shakespeare. Although racism was not fully formed at this moment in history, Othello can be interpreted as a representation and an exploration of this shift in ideology. In the past, before this change to ward racial differences, religion was the major segretory factor in signifyingRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare894 Words   |  4 Pagesthose that which occurred in Othello written by William Shakespeare. Throughout the play Othello, we see the struggles of a marriage that is not accepted by their society. Othello is a extremely cherished black general living in a primarily white community. The play begins with Othello secretly becoming married to a white woman named Desdemona. This reasons others who are white to become angry and excuse to dislike this black man further more than they already do. Othello is a downward spiral from loveRead MoreOthello by William Shakespeare790 Words   |  3 PagesThroughout Othello by William Shakespeare, Othello makes numerous poor decisions due to his jealousy. Hitting Desdemona, trusting Iago, and killing Desdemona are among a few of the poor decisions that he makes. The word jealous can be defined as feeling or showing suspicion of som eones unfaithfulness in a relationship. Othello feels suspicious of Desdemona’s and Cassio’s relationship because of the lies that Iago tells him. Many people try to tell Othello the truth but he only believes the wordsRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1923 Words   |  8 Pagesdissatisfaction or complication is shown. Firstly in Othello love is presented as ephemeral and transient while atonement love is presented as unrequited and finally in cat on a hot tin roof love is presented as painful and troublesome due to unreciprocated feelings. The tragic plot of Othello hinges on the potential of the villain, Iago, to deceive other characters, above all Roderigo and Othello, through encouraging them to misinterpret what they see. Othello is prone to Iago s ploys seeing that he himselfRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare941 Words   |  4 Pageswas Williams Shakespeare’s play Othello which depicts the tragedy of Othello, a Morris Captain. What is different about Shakespeare play is that the tragic hero is the black Othello and the villain a white Iago. Therefore, Shakespeare depiction of Othello as a tragic character and Iago as a villain, challenges Elizabethan’s stereotypes regarding individuals of African descent. Shakespeare challenges the stereotypical â€Å"type –casting of the black man† in Elizabethan society by depicting Othello asRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1152 Words   |  5 Pages‘Othello’ was a tragedy of incomprehension at the deepest level of human dealings as no one in the play came to an understanding of himself or any of the surrounding characters. The play ‘Othello’ by William Shakespeare focused on tragedy through the anguish of the main character ‘Othello’ which lead to the suffering and death of numerous characters including himself. Appearance Vs. Reality challenged human dealings within the play ‘Othello’ as no-one came to see anyone’s true self and no-one seesRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1178 Words   |  5 Pagesprofitable in condition of good and immorality. Othello is presented as good and Iago as evil, but Iago and Othello’s relationship also shares a distrust of their wives. The overall logical argument is based on love, jealousy and betrayal between two lovers that ultimately leads to their separation because of Iago’s evil plan. I am using this article to agree with Berry s view on how Iago separates two lovers just so he can take retaliation on Othello by manipulating everyone to unmasking their trueRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1825 Words   |  8 PagesWilliam Shakespeare’s plays transcends time and is renowned for their captivating plots and complex characters. Othello by William Shakespeare is a tragedy play that portrays major themes such as racism, manipulation, and jealousy just to name a few. Throughout the whole play, these themes are represented through the conniving character from the play, Iago. Out of all the plays Shakespeare has written, Iago is believed to be the most complex villain of all times. During the play, Othello, a black

Introduction to International Relations Free Essays

In the context of the idea of â€Å"Nationalism†, what are the differences between the Scottish National Party and the British National Party? BODY OF WORK Being today a central issue of the modern world, Nationalism, a term from nasci which means â€Å"to be born†, has most of the time been considered as a 19th century phenomenon, connected to the development and creation of nation-states .While seen by a large number of critics as outdated in other word old, not just because it is inherently expansionist but also destructive, others in meantime see it as a strength to re-enforce order and solve conflict. Thus, the issue of nationalism will therefore depend on a system every country adopts. We will write a custom essay sample on Introduction to International Relations or any similar topic only for you Order Now If we take the United Kingdom(UK),a constitutional monarchy and unitary states which is composed of four(4) countries :England(London),Northern Ireland(Belfast),Wales(Cardiff) and Scotland(Edinburgh) has been governed by a Parliamentary system.However,it is argued that nationalism within the UK is both reactionary and progressive . The simply reason of this statement is that in different parts of UK,the notion of nationalism has components of both looking towards the future inclusively and progressively but ,also looking to their past regressively thus hoping to bring back their historical period.Britain and Scotland, being among these parts of UK, have for a centuries had political parties sometimes based on similar ideas but most of the time different from each others. The British nationalism referring to the nationalist ideas and policies’ application to the United Kingdom tends to promote the UK as a goal for national identity, social movements, comprises political and se ntiment inspired by the love of British language, culture , history and ot forgotten the pride of being British. Supported ,politically from the Euro scepticism of the conservative United Kingdom Independence Party and far-right British national party to the centre-right conservative Party and the left-centrist Liberal Democrats, British nationalism has had a progressive cause characterised by â€Å"a powerful but ambivalent force in British politics†.From this British nationalism, a party called the British national party will be one of our aim studies in this topic. As for Scotland, Nationalism being a political ideology and created in 1921 as primarily body based in London and largely influenced by Sinn Fein ,has most of the time supported greater autonomy for Scotland as part of the United Kingdom, but also the creation of a sovereign state.In which case Scottish nationalism can be referred to three (3) main elements: -The Scottish Independence with the advocacy of Scotland becoming a sovereign state -The Scottish national party with the main political party that support Scottish Independence. -The Scottish home rule, an organisation knew before the Devolved Scottish Parliament was created in 1999 that had for purpose to give Scotland the autonomy within the British Empire. From this nationalism , derived a national party called the Scottish national party.It is therefore in the process Nationalism that, our aim target will be to identify the differences between the two major national parties in the United Kingdom known as the British Nationa l Party (BNP) and the Scottish National To begin with, we should start by saying that the Scottish National Party (SNP), a civic party with strong democratic leanings and non-nationalist was first created in (1934) having as aim to promote justice, caring and enterprising community by making Scottish potential as an independent nation in the mainstream of modern Europe.Wishing to be completely independent from Britain, the Scottish national party has always wanted to be a separate state making its own decisions not just in Europe but throughout the world, this is why Scottish political parties such as, the SNP encourage progressive attitudes that are principally based on two main(2) things:the long term desire to become but also the ambition to be entirely inclusive with global organisation such as Europe . While the British National Party, reated in (1982) by a group of the National Front with John Tyndall, is a far-right, fascist political party combined with a white supremacy org anisation that stands for anti-non british,because it believes that there are significant differences between races, one of the party’s main objectives is to restore by legal methods white ethnicity, which existed prior to 1948 in a way that anything that does not fit their narrow stereotype is meant to be kept away from the party. Adding to this, it has to be said that the British national party adoring men like Adolf Hitler of German Nazi is almost claimed to be a Nazi political party as well. Another reason that makes the difference between the two parties is that, the Scottish national party has always wanted an open door to all races and nationalities in the sense that even non-Scottish people have been accepted to be members of the party without forgetting the fact that this was the first party to have a Muslim MSP as member.After independence, anyone living in Scotland could claim a Scottish citizenship under the SNP constitution with an open door policy on immigration compared to Britain ,where immigration still a dominant issue thus blaming immigrants for any possible problem . It is even believed that the British national party has for wish to put the white British- born before immigrants and non- british,stopping immigration and repatriate people of different races, presently living in the UK to the respective countries .In a speech given by Nick Griffin ,the actual leader of the British national party(BNP),he declared that â€Å"it is probably now too late to anticipate a return to the status quo ante 1948 â€Å" therefore suggested a new model of â€Å"milti-culturalism†. This model was meant to lead by a policy of cultural and biological separation ,not by principles of integration, this could allow people to enjoy each other’s culture and tradition but each staying on their own in order to avoid â€Å"diversity† which could be but a short –lived stepping stone to nothingness.An expected outcome of the method as Tyndall said, was going to be in the image of a south-African apartheid-style system with like he said â€Å"separate communities of people –Indian ,Pakistani, Bangladeshi(Hindu and Muslim),African and Afro-Caribbean and heaven knows what else-living side by side in Britain in separate enclaves†. This is to show that although immigrations issues were trying to be solved there were nevertheless still based on strict principles that had to be followed. Principles that were completely different from the one the Scottish national party made.These days, the Scottish national party does not have a lot to deal with national parties in eastern and central Europe particularly because most of them are rather right wing ,among them men like, Michal Kaminski of the polish law and justice party. Also, in the European parliament for Freedom and fatherland party, it will be noticed that men like David Cameron will definitely be comfortable to sit with Latvia whereas it would be hard if not never for the Scottish party to Roberts Zile from the FFF to the next Bannockburn shindig.This is to prove that racism is not a big concern in Scottish nationalism because there is no race problem in Scotland. Moreover, there are also differences regarding the concern of the British and Scottish public a s a whole. While Scotland is much more concerned about the unemployment as a big problem to face, Britain on its side is more worried about the economic field which is very frequent nowadays. In the other hand, crime, law and order are very serious matters in Britain than in Scotland where it is more likely to be concerned about the education. Furthermore ,another difference between the British national party and the Scottish one is that, the Scottish national party, being left wing is very focused on what people living in Scotland will be in the future regardless what the religion or skin colour are, while the British national, being right wing wants to go back to their old values.In terms of Military issue, providing that it is the government in Westminster that is in charge to send soldiers at war, Scotland plays a very small part in sending soldiers for defence ,war and terrorism compared to Britain that is more concerned about this issue. To conclude with this topic, it shall be said that although, these two are different parties in different countries, the differences between them is all about Racism, Immigrations and Political issues.In terms of racism, the British national party states that their constitution has for purpose, the preservation of the ethnic and national typical character of the British people themselves . David Blackburn writes for the spectator coffee house that â€Å"the BNP is no longer a racist party, but a party of racists† in respond to the news that the British national party membership look to vote in favour of allowing the non-whites and non-British to join the party while the Scottish national party has always wanted an open door to all races and nationalities no matter colour, gender and creed there are.In terms of political issues, Scotland is a minority within the UK (United Kingdom) which means the decision-making process stays in the goal of the majority included Britain . Therefore; policies that suit Scotland are often not taken into consideration. In terms of immigrations issues, differences have also been seen above with the British national party wanting to repatriate all immigrants or sometimes create strict principles that have to be followed by all immigrants. Whereas, the Scottish national party has and still fighting against immigration, thus giving citizenship to those claiming for it.So basically, these are some of the differences in brief between the British national party and the Scottish national party, although there could others points according to different points of viReferences and Bibliography David B. , Nick G. ,†Changing course or changing Clothes? †Reflection on the ideological evolution of the British national party 1999-2006 , pp81 Iain M. , gardian. co. uk, Monday 8 June 2009 14. 00 BST IN Last night was the SNP’s night Arthur A. ,†Nationalism, Devolution and the Challenge to the United Kingdom How to cite Introduction to International Relations, Papers

THE PROBLEMS OF DIVORCE Essays - Divorce, Family Law, Parenting

THE PROBLEMS OF DIVORCE Introduction In today's society, one of the toughest things many parents and children have to face or deal with is divorce. It is usually extremely tough on the parents getting the divorce however many times the children simply get lost in all the mess and are left to cope as best as they can. Eventhough people get divorced for many different reasons; often times the children tend to try and shoulder some of the blame. In this paper I plan to look at a few of the effects divorce has on the parents getting the divorce, plus look at some of the affects it has on the children caught in the middle. In today's society it is rarely even a shock that people are divorced. It has become as common place as the marriage itself. Between 50% and 67% of all first time marriages end in divorce (Gottman, 1998). This same report done on divorce rates (Gottman, 1998) also found that for second marriages, the rate is about 10% higher than for the first. The rate of divorce has leveled off some within the past six years, but a large number of families continue to experience it each year (Shaw, Emery, & Tuer, 1993). In fact, approximately 2% of children living in the United States are faced with parental divorce each year (Emery & Forehand, 1994), and, in one sample of children, it was observed that 25% of the children experienced a parental breakup by age 14 (Baydar, 1988). In most all of the newspapers you can look in there and see a list of all the people getting married. In contrast, you can look across the page and see a list just about as long of people getting divorced. Effects on Parents There have been numerous research studies done on the effects divorce has on the parents. One such report found that many of the spouses of divorce have mental and physical health problems, as well as, increased risk of psychopath-ology, increased wrecks with fatalities, increased physical illness, suicide, violence and homicides (Gottman, 1998). In another related study done on adults, it was found that adults, who had gone through a divorce, usually reported less satisfaction with family and friends and an increase in anxiety. They often felt that bad things more frequently happen to them, and that they found it more difficult to cope with life's stresses in general (Friedman, 1995). Friedman (1995) also published a recent report based on the Terman longitudinal study of gifted children. The report stated that survival curves showed that the combination of one's parents having divorced and one's own divorce reduced longevity by an average of approximately eight years (Friedman, 199 5). In looking at problems for parents associated with divorce, researchers have also begun to look at different avenues that they feel are important in getting good research. For example, they have begun to study loneliness caused by divorce and the effects it has on the parents and even the children. One study in particular suggests that 25% of the U.S. reported feeling intensely lonely in the two-week period following divorce (Rokach, 1997). They say that the effects of loneliness are evident in its identification as a frequent presenting complaint to telephone hotlines, college psychological clinics, and youth and marriage counseling services (Jones, Rose, & Russell, 1990). Researchers have also begun to study the social importance of loneliness due to the large number of effects it has on emotional, physical, and behavioral problems (Jones et al., 1990). Jones (1990) also found loneliness to be inversely related to measures of self-esteem and has also been found to be largely associ ated with depression, anxiety, and interpersonal hostility and with substance abuse, suicide, and vulnerability to health problems. Effects on Children In much of the research being done today, it has been found that divorce has a relatively small, but significant impact on multiple areas of child functioning (Forehand, Armistead, & David, 1997). However, one study discovered that a major risk factor in a child's psychosocial adjustment is parental divorce (Forehand, 1998). Another particularly good study conducted a meta-analysis of 92 different studies comparing children from divorced families to children from families that were still together. It

Defining Racial Prejudice

Defining Racial Prejudice Words such as racism, prejudice, and stereotype are often used interchangeably. While the definitions of these terms overlap, they actually mean different things. Racial prejudice, for instance, typically arises from race-based stereotypes. People of influence who prejudge others set the stage for institutional racism to occur. How does this happen? This overview of what racial prejudice is, why it’s dangerous and how to combat prejudice explains in detail. Defining Prejudice It’s difficult to discuss prejudice without clarifying what it is. The fourth edition of the American Heritage College Dictionary provides four meanings for the term- from â€Å"an adverse judgment or opinion formed beforehand or without knowledge or examination of the facts† to â€Å"irrational suspicion or hatred of a particular group, race or religion.† Both definitions apply to the experiences of ethnic minorities in Western society. Of course, the second definition sounds much more menacing than the first, but prejudice in either capacity has the potential to cause a great deal of damage. Likely because of his skin color, English professor and writer Moustafa Bayoumi says that strangers often ask him, â€Å"Where are you from?† When he answers that he was born in Switzerland, grew up in Canada and now lives in Brooklyn, he raises eyebrows. Why? Because the people doing the questioning have a preconceived idea about what Westerners generally and Americans particularly look like. They’re operating under the (erroneous) assumption that natives of the United States don’t have brown skin, black hair or names that aren’t English in origin. Bayoumi acknowledges that the people suspicious of him typically don’t â€Å"have any real malice in mind.† Still, they allow prejudice to guide them. While Bayoumi, a successful author, has taken the questions about his identity in stride, others deeply resent being told that their ancestral origins make them less American than others. Prejudice of this nature may not only lead to psychological t rauma but also to racial discrimination. Arguably no group demonstrates this more than Japanese Americans. Prejudice Begets Institutional Racism When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941, the U.S. public viewed Americans of Japanese descent suspiciously. Although many Japanese Americans had never stepped foot in Japan and knew only of the country from their parents and grandparents, the notion spread that the Nisei (second-generation Japanese Americans) were more loyal to the Japanese empire than to their birthplace- the United States. Acting with this idea in mind, the federal government decided to round up more than 110,000 Japanese Americans and place them in internment camps for fear that they would team up with Japan to plot additional attacks against the United States. No evidence suggested that Japanese Americans would commit treason against the U.S. and join forces with Japan. Without trial or due process, the Nisei were stripped of their civil liberties and forced into detention camps. The case of Japanese-American internment is one of the most egregious cases of racial prejudice leading to institutiona l racism. In 1988, the U.S. government issued a formal apology to Japanese Americans for this shameful chapter in history. Prejudice and Racial Profiling After the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks, Japanese Americans worked to prevent Muslim Americans from being treated how the Nisei and Issei were during World War II. Despite their efforts, hate crimes against Muslims or those perceived to be Muslim or Arab rose following the terrorist attacks. Americans of Arab origin face particular scrutiny on airlines and airports. On the tenth anniversary of 9/11, an Ohio housewife of Arab and Jewish background named Shoshanna Hebshi made international headlines after accusing Frontier Airlines of removing her from a flight simply because of her ethnicity and because she happened to be seated next to two South Asian men. She says that she never left her seat, spoke to other passengers or tinkered with suspicious devices during the flight. In other words, her removal from the plane was without warrant. She’d been racially profiled. â€Å"I believe in tolerance, acceptance and trying–as hard as it sometimes maybe–not to judge a person by the color of their skin or the way they dress,† she stated in a blog post. â€Å"I admit to having fallen to the traps of convention and have made judgments about people that are unfounded. †¦The real test will be if we decide to break free from our fears and hatred and truly try to be good people who practice compassion–even toward those who hate.† The Link Between Racial Prejudice and Stereotypes Prejudice and race-based stereotypes work hand in hand. Due to the pervasive stereotype that an all-American person is blonde and blue-eyed (or at the very least white), those who don’t fit the bill- such as Moustafa Bayoumi- are prejudged to be foreign or â€Å"other.† Never mind that this characterization of an all-American more aptly describes the Nordic population than individuals who are indigenous to the Americas or the diverse groups that make up the United States today. Combating Prejudice Unfortunately, racial stereotypes are so prevalent in Western society that even the very young exhibit signs of prejudice. Given this, it’s inevitable that the most open-minded of individuals will have a prejudiced thought on occasion. One needn’t act on prejudice, however. When President George W. Bush addressed the Republican National Convention in 2004, he called on schoolteachers not to give in to their preconceived ideas about students based on race and class. He singled out the principal of Gainesville Elementary School in Georgia for â€Å"challenging the soft bigotry of low expectations.†Ã‚  Although poor Hispanic children made up most of the student body, 90 percent of pupils there passed state tests in reading and math. â€Å"I believe every child can learn,† Bush said. Had school officials decided that the Gainesville students couldn’t learn because of their ethnic origin or socioeconomic status, institutional racism would have been the likely result. Administrators and teachers would not have worked to give the student body the best education possible, and Gainesville could’ve become yet another failing school. This is what makes prejudice such a threat.

How to pronounce Ma Ying-jeou (Ma Ying-jiu)

How to pronounce Ma Ying-jeou (Ma Ying-jiu) In this article, we will look at how to pronounce Ma Ying-jeou (traditional: é ¦ ¬Ã¨â€¹ ±Ã¤ ¹ , simplified: é © ¬Ã¨â€¹ ±Ã¤ ¹ ), which in Hanyu Pinyin would be MÇŽ YÄ «ng-jiÇ”. Since most students use Hanyu Pinyin for pronunciation, I will henceforth use that. Ma Ying-jiu was president of Taiwan (Republic of China) from 2008 to 2016. Below, I will first give you a quick and dirty way if you just want to have a rough idea how to pronounce the name. Then I’ll go through a more detailed description, including analysis of common learner errors. Pronouncing Names in Chinese Pronouncing Chinese names correctly can be very hard if you havent studied the language.  Ignoring or mispronouncing tones will just add to the confusion. These mistakes add up and often become so serious that a native speaker would fail to understand. Read more about how to pronounce Chinese names. How to Pronounce Ma Ying-jiu if Youve Never Studied Chinese Chinese names usually consist of three syllables, with the first being the family name and the last two the personal name. There are exceptions to this rule, but it holds true in a vast majority of cases. Thus, there are three syllables we need to deal with. Listen to the pronunciation here while reading the explanation. Repeat yourself! Ma - Pronounce as ma in markYing - Pronounce as Eng in EnglishJiu - Pronounce as Joe If you want want to have a go at the tones, they are low, high-flat and low (or dipping, see below). Note: This pronunciation is not correct pronunciation in Mandarin (though it is reasonably close). To really get it right, you need to learn some new sounds (see below). How to Actually Pronounce Ma Yingjiu If you study Mandarin, you should never ever rely on English approximations like those above. Those are meant for people who dont intend to learn the language! You have to understand the orthography, i.e. how the letters relate to the sounds. There are many traps and pitfalls in Pinyin you have to be familiar with. Now, lets look at the three syllables in more detail, including common learner errors: Ma  (third tone) - You are probably familiar with this sound if youve studied Mandarin since its often used to demonstrate tones and is very common. The m is easy to get right, but the a is harder. In general, the a in mark is too far back, but the a in man is too far forward. Somewhere in between. It is a very open sound, too.Ying  (first tone) - As you may have guessed already, this syllable was chosen to represent England and thereby English because they do sound quite similar. The i (which is spelt yi here) in Mandarin is pronounced with the tongue tip closer to the upper teeth than in English. Its as far up and forward ou can go, basically. It can almost sound like a soft j at times. The final can have an optional short schwa (as in English the). To get the right -ng, let your jaw drop and your tongue withdraw.Jiu (third tone) -This sound is tricky to get right. First, j is one of the hardest sounds to get right for native speakers of English. Its a voiceless unaspriated aff ricate, which means that there should be a soft t followed by a hissing sound. This should be pronounced in the same place as x, which means tongue tip touching the lower teeth ridge. iu is an abbreviation of iou. The i tends to overlap with the initial. The remaining part is somewhere in between jaw and joe, but note that the English j is quite different from Pinyin j.. The are some variations for these sounds, but Ma Ying-jiu (é © ¬Ã¨â€¹ ±Ã¤ ¹ ) can be written like this in IPA: ma jəŋ tÉ•ju Conclusion Now you know how to pronounce Ma Ying -jiu (é © ¬Ã¨â€¹ ±Ã¤ ¹ ). Did you find it hard? If you’re learning Mandarin, dont worry; there arent that many sounds. Once you’ve learnt the most common ones, learning to pronounce words (and names) will become much easier!